Chapter I: Preface

The history of medicine has been sadly neglected in our medical schools. The valuable and fruitful lessons which it tells of _what not to do_ have been completely disregarded, and in consequence the same gross errors have over and over been repeated. The following pages represent an effort to bring the most important facts and events comprised within such history into the compass of a medical curriculum, and, at the same time, to rehearse them in such manner that the book may be useful and acceptable to the interested layman.,--i.e., to popularize the subject. This effort first took form in a series of lectures given in the Medical Department of the University of Buffalo. The subject-matter of these lectures has been rearranged, enlarged, and edited, in order to make it more presentable for easy reading and reference. I have also tried, so far as I could in such brief space, to indicate the relationship which has ever existed between medicine, philosophy, natural science, theology, and even _belles-lettres_. Particularly is the history of medicine inseparable from a consideration of the various notions and beliefs that have at times shaken the very foundation of Christendom and the Church, and for reasons which appear throughout the book.

The history of medicine is really a history of human error and of human discovery. During the past two thousand years it is hard to say which has prevailed. Notwithstanding, had it not been for the latter the total of the former would have been vastly greater. A large part of my effort has been devoted to considering the causes which conspired to prevent the more rapid development of our art. If among these the frowning or forbidding attitude of the Church figures most prominently, it must not be regarded as any expression of a quarrel with the Church of to-day. But let any one interested read President White's _History of the Warfare of Science with Theology_, the best presentation of the subject, and he can take no issue with my statements.

Reverence for the true, the beautiful, and the good has characterized physicians in all times and climes. But little of the true, the beautiful, or the good crept into the transactions of the Church for many centuries, and we suffer, to-day, more from its interference in time past than from all other causes combined. The same may be said of theology, which is as separate from religion as darkness from light. Only when students of science emancipated themselves from the prejudices and superstitions of the theologians did medicine make more than barely perceptible progress.

In this connection I would like to quote a paragraph from an article by King, in the _Nineteenth Century_ for 1893: "The difficulties under which medical science labored may be estimated from the fact that dissection was forbidden by the clergy of the Middle Ages on the ground that it was impious to mutilate a form made in the image of God. We do not find this pious objection interfering with such mutilation when effected by means of the rack and wheel and such other clerical, rather than medical, instruments."

Written history is, to a certain extent at least, plagiarism; and I make no apology for having borrowed my facts from whatever source could best furnish them, but wish cheerfully and publicly to acknowledge my indebtedness to the works mentioned below, those especially of Renouard, Baas, and Sprengel, and to various biographical dictionaries. I have not even scrupled to take bodily sentences or expressions from these authorities, but have tried to so indicate them when I could.

The writer takes pleasure in acknowledging here the obligations which both he and the publishers feel to Dr. Joseph H. Hunt, of Brooklyn, N. Y., from whose extensive and valuable collection have been furnished the originals for most of the portraits in the following pages, and to Dr. F. P. Henry, Honorary Librarian of the College of Physicians of Philadelphia, through whose courtesy was obtained the privilege of reproducing the illustrations of instruments and operations from some of the rare old works in the college library. The kind co-operation of these gentlemen has given a distinct and added value to the contents of this little work.

LIST OF PRINCIPAL WORKS CONSULTED.

Baas, Outlines of the History of Medicine. Translated by Henderson. New York, 1889.

Berdoe, Origin and Growth of the Heeding Art. London, 1893.

Bouchut, Histoire de la Médecine. Paris, 1873.

Dezeimeris, Lettres sur VHistoire de la Médecine. Paris, 1838.

Dietionnaire Historique de la Médecine. Paris, 1828.

Haeser, Geschiehte der Medicin. Jena, 1853.

Hirsch, Biographisehes Lexikon des Hervorragendeu der Aerzte aller Zeiten und Vülker. Wien und Leipzig, 1884.

Portal, Histoire de VAnatomie et de la Chirurgie. Paris, 1770.

South, Memorials of the Craft of Surgery in England. London, 1886.

Sprexgel, Geschicute der Chirurgie. Halle, 1819.

CONTENTS.

CHAP I.

Medicine Among the Hebrews, the Egyptians, the Orientals, the Chinese, and the Early Greeks.--The Asclepiadæ.--Further Arrangement into Periods (Renouard's Classification). The Age of Foundation.--The Primitive; Sacred, or Mystic; and Philosophic Periods.--Systems in Vogue: Dogmatism, Methodism, Empiricism, Eclecticism.--Hippocrates...................................... 1-29

CHAP II.

AGE OF Foundation (continued).--Anatomic Period: Influence of the Alexandrian Library. Herophilus and Erasistratus. Aretæus. Cel-sus. Galen.--Empiricism: Asclepiades.--Methodism: Theinison.--Eclecticism. Age of Transition.--Greek Period: Oribasins. Ætius. Alexander of Tralles. Paulus Ægineta............ 30-56

CHAP III.

Age of Transition (continued).--Arabic Period: Alkindus. Mesue. Rhazes. Haly-Abbas. Avicenna. Albucassis. Avenzoar. Averroës. Maimonides.--School of Salernum: Constantinus Africanus. Roger of Salerno. Roland of Parma. The Four Masters. John of Procida................................................. 57-85

CHAP IV

Age of Transition ( concluded).--The School of Montpellier: Raimond Lulli. John of Gaddesden. Arnold of Villanova. Establishment of Various Universities. Gerard of Cremona. William of Salicet. Lanfranc. Mondino. Guy de Chauliac. Age of Renovation.--Erudite Period, including the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries. Thomas Linacre. Sylvius. Vesalius. Columbus. Eustaclius. Fallopius. Fabricius ab Aquapendente. Fabricius Hildanus.. 86-113

CHAP V.

Age of Renovation (continued).--Erudite Period (continued): Beni-vieni. Jean Fern el. Porta. Severino. Incorporation of Brother-hood of St. Come into the University of Paris. Ambroise Paré. Guillemeau. Influence of the Occult Sciences: Agrippa. Jerome Cardan. Paracelsus. Botal. Joubert...................... 114-147

CHAP VI.

Age of Renovation (continued).--Stndent-life During the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries. Ceremonials Previous to Dissection.--Reform Period: The Seventeenth, Eighteenth, and Nineteenth Centuries. Modern Realism in Medicine and Science. Introduction of the Cell-doctrine. Discovery of the Circulation. William Harvey. Malpighi. Leuwenhoek. Correct-Doctrine of Respiration. Discovery of the Lymphatic Circulation. The Nervous System. Discovery of Cinchona. Development in Obstetric Art, in Medical Jurisprudence, and in Oral Clinical Teaching. Van Helmont.--The Iatrochemical System: Le Bôe. Thomas Willis... 148-170

CHAP VII.

Age of Renovation (continued).--latromechanical School: Santoro. Borelli. Sydenham. Sir Thomas Browne.--Surgery: Denis. F. Collot. Dionis. Baulot (Frère Jacques). Scultetus. Rau. Wiseman. Cowper. Sir C. Wren the Discoverer of Hypodermatic Medication. Anatomical Discoveries. General Condition of the Profession During the Seventeenth Century. The Eighteenth Century. Boerliaave. Gaub.--Animism: Stahl.--Jlechanico-dynamic System: Hoffmann. Cullen.--Old Vienna School: Van Swieten. De Haën.--Vitalism: Bordeu. Erasmus Darwin .................171-202

CHAP VIII.

Age of Renovation (continued).--Animal Magnetism: Mesmer. Braid. --Brunonianism: John Brown.--Realism: Pinel. Bichat. Avenbrugger. Werlliof. Frank.--Surgery: Petit. Desault. Scarpa. Gimbernat. Heister. Von Siebold. Richter. Cheselden. Monro (1st). Pott. John Hunter. B. Bell, J. Bell, C. Bell. Smellie. Denman.--Revival of Experimental Study: Haller. Winslow. Portal. Yieq d'Azvr. Morgagni.--Inoculation against Smallpox: Lady Montagu. Edward Jenner............................. 203-221

CHAP IX.

Age of Renovation (continued).--The Eighteenth Century; General Considerations. Foundation of Learned Societies, etc. The Royal College of Surgeons; the Josephinum.--The Nineteenth Century Realistie Reaction Against Previous Idealism. Influence of Comte, of Claude Bernard, and of Charles Darwin. Influence Exerted by Other Sciences.--Theory of Excitement: Roeschlaub.--Stimolo and Contrastimolo: Kasori.--Homoeopathy: Halineiaim.--Isopatly, Electrohomoeopathy of Mattei.--Cranioscopy, or Phrenology: Gall and Spurzlieim.--The Physiological Theory: Broussais.--Paris Pathological School: Cruveillier. Andral. Louis. Magendie. Trousseau. Claude Bernard.--British Medicine: Bell and Hall. Travel's.--Germany, School of Natural Philosophy: Johannes Müller.--School of Natural History: Schonlein.--New Vienna School: Rokitansky. Skoda.................................... 230-252

CHAP X.

Age of Transition (concluded).--New Vienna School (concluded): von Hebra. Czermak and Türck. Juger. Arlt. Gruber. Politzer.--German School of Physiological Medicine: Roser.--School of Rational Medicine: Henle.--Pseudoparacelsism: Rademaeher.--Hydrotherapeutics: Priessnitz.--Modern Vitalism: Virchow.--Seminalism: Bouchut.--Parasitism and the Germ-theory: Davaine. Pasteur. Chauveau. Klebs. F. J. Cohn. Koch. Lister.--Advances in Physical Diagnosis: Laënnec. Piorry.--Surgery: Delpecli. Stro-meyer. Sims. Bozeman. McDowell. Boyer. Larrey. Dupuytren. Cloquet. Civiale. Vidal. Velpeau. Malgaigne. Nélaton. Sir Astley Cooper. Brodie. Guthrie. Syme. Simpson. Langenbeck. Billroth.................................................. 253-275

CHAP XI.

History of Medicine in America.--The Colonial Physicians. Medical Study under Preceptors. Inoculation against Small-pox. Military Surgery During the Revolutionary War. Earliest Medical Teaching and Teachers in this Country. The First Medical Schools. Benjamin Rush. The First Medical Journals. Brief List of the Best-Known American Physicians and Surgeons.... 276-299

CHAP XII.

The History of Anæsthesia.--Anæsthesia and Analgesia. Drugs Possessing Narcotic Properties in use since Prehistoric Times. Mandragora; Hemp; Hasheesh. Sulphuric Ether and the Men Concerned in its Introduction as an Anæsthetic--Long, Jackson, Wells, and Morton. Morton's First Public Demonstration of the Value of Ether. Morton Entitled to the Credit of its Introduction. Chloroform and Sir Janies Simpson. Cocaine and Karl Koller.............................................. 300-315

CHAP XIII.

The History of Antisepsis.--Sepsis, Asepsis, and Antisepsis. The Germ-theory of Disease. Gay-Lussac's Researches. Schwann. Tyndall. Pasteur. Davaine. Lord Lister and his Epoch-making Revolution in Surgical Methods. Modifications of his Earlier Technique without Change in Underlying Principles, which Still Remain Unshaken. Changes Effected in Consequence. Comparison of Old and Modern Statistics........... 316-329

CHAP XIV.

Ax Epitome of the History of Dentistry.--Rude Dentistry of Prehistoric Times. Early Instruments for Extraction Made of Lead. Dentistry on the Same Low Plane as Medicine During the First. Half of the Christian Era. Dentistry Taught at the School of Salernum. Progress of the Art on the Continent. Prosthesis and Substitutes for Human Teeth. Introduction of Porcelain for Artificial Teeth; of Metal and of Vulcanized Rubber for Plates; of Plaster for Impressions. From being a Trade, Dentistry is now a Profession, in which Americans lead the World. Statistics... 330-341

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

1. Æsculapius,..................................007

2. Offering to Æsculapius,......................009

3. Hippocrates,.................................019

4. Aulus Cornelius Celsus,......................035

5. The Conversion of Galen,.....................037

6. Averroës,....................................064

7. Andreas Vesalius,............................105

8. Title-page, Seven Books of the Anatomy,......106

9. IV, Forceps for Extracting Balls.............108

10. Gabriel Fallopius,..........................109

11. Forms of Forceps for Enlarging Wounds,......111

12. Body Showing Various Kinds of Wounds,.......117

13. Mode of Extracting Leaden Bullets,..........121

14. Ambroise Parc,..............................124

15. Pliers, Iron for Actual Cautery,............126

16. Swan's Beak, Used for Dilating..............129

17. Instruments for the Extraction of Balls,....131

18. Spéculums for the Mouth and Womb, etc.,.....133

19. Amputation Instruments,.....................135

20. Different Forms of Trephines and Pliers,....137

21. Philip Theophrastus Paracelsus,.............143

22. William Harvey, M.D.,.......................156

23. Thomas Sydenham,............................173

24. Straight Saws and Divers Scraping Tools,....179

25. Surgical Treatment of Dislocations,.........181

26. Operations on the Arms and Lower Limbs,.....185

27. Surgical Operations on the Breast, etc.,....187

28. Boerhaave,..................................193

29. John Brown, M.D.,...........................205

30. Ph. Pinel,..................................207

31. Marie François Xavier Bicliat, M.D.,........208

32. William Hunter, M.D., F.R.S.,...............217

33. John Hunter,................................219

34. J. F. Blumenbacli,..........................223

35. Edward Jenner, M.D.,........................227

36. Samuel Hahnemann,...........................242

37. Rudolph Virchow,............................257

38. Bernhard von Langenbeck,....................265

39. Theodor Billroth,...........................266

40. Sir Astley Cooper, Bart.,...................272

41. Sir Benjamin Collins Brodie, F.R.S.,........273

42. B. Waterhouse, M.D.,........................280

43. Surgeon's Hall,.............................281

44. Benjamin Rush, M.D.,........................284

45. George B. Wood, M.D.,.......................286

46. Robley Dunglison, M.D.,.....................287

47. Austin Flint, M.D.,.........................288

48. Isaac Ray, M.D.,............................289

49. Philip Sung Physick, M.D.,..................291

50. Ephraim McDowell, M.D.,.....................292

51. S. D. Gross, M.D., LL.D.,...................294

52. J. Marion Sims, M.D.,.......................296

53. D. Hayes Agnew, M.D., LL.D.,................297

54. William T. G. Morton, M.D.,.................307

55. Dr. Morton, October 16, 1846,...............309

56. Lord Lister, M.D., D.C.L., LL.D.,...........323

AN EPITOME OF THE HISTORY OF MEDICINE.