Chapter XXII: Section V: The Regulations with regard to the House for the reception (3)

Thus, whilst it would appear from the proportionate numbers of deaths to the population that the average duration of life in the metropolis has doubled during the last century, it appears from the returns of the average ages themselves that it has only increased four years and nine months, or about one-fifth. The district of the old bills of mortality comprehends little more than one-half of the metropolis. The average age of death for the year 1839 for the whole metropolis, it will have been seen, is only 27 years. So far as an average for that year for the old district can be made out from the several recent district returns, it would appear to be no more than 26 years. But the earlier mortuary registration was known to be extremely defective, especially in the registration of deaths in the poorer districts, and the recent lower averages are ascribable to the closer registration of the infantile mortality in those districts. The earlier returns are only to be regarded in so far as the errors from period to period are likely to have compensated each other; they are only adduced as indicating the degree of proportionate progression, correspondent with the general physical improvements of the population. But the slow general improvement, made up by the great improvements of particular classes, is consistent with the positive deterioration of others. The average age of death of the whole of the working classes we have seen is still no more than 22 years in the whole of the metropolis. In large sub-districts, if we could distinguish accurately the classes of deaths, the average would be found to be not more than half that period: a rate of mortality ascribable to increased over-crowding and stationary accommodation, greatly below anything that probably existed at the commencement of the century. The chief errors in the existing returns are errors which cause the extent of the evils which depress the sanitary condition of the population, and the mortality consequent on those evils to be under estimated.

The erroneous conclusions as to the ages of the populations from the proportions of deaths, have perhaps arisen from assumptions of the existence of states of things rarely, if ever, found, namely, perfectly stationary populations and perfectly stationary causes of death. I have been asked “If 1 out of 40 die yearly, must not the average age of all who die be 40 years?” The answer, by actual experience, as we have seen, is, that it is often not 30 years; and perhaps the reason why it is not so will be most conveniently illustrated by hypothetical cases. For example, let it be assumed that in any given year 40 persons die out of 1600, which is in the proportion of 1 to 40, and in consequence of an unusual prevalence of measles, or some disease to which children are subject, the greater number of deaths occur amongst the infant portion of the population, and hence, out of the 40 deaths, 20 occur at 5 years of age, 10 at 25, and 10 at 60. Then the total existence had, would have been (20 × 5) + (10 × 25) + (10 × 60) = 100 + 250 + 600 = 950 years, and this divided by 40, the number who died would give 950/40 = 24 years nearly as the average duration of life to each of the 40 who died.

On the other hand, suppose a severe winter, in which the peculiar causes of mortality may have pressed unusually heavy upon the older lives, and let the numbers who died have been 20, at 60 years of age; 10 at 40; and 10 at 5; in such case, the total existence enjoyed would have been (20 × 60) + (10 × 40) + (10 × 5) = 1200 + 400 + 50 = 1650 years, which, divided by 40, would give 1650/40 = 41¼ years as the average duration of life to each.

And again, where, in fact, the proportion of death in one year may be represented as 1 death out of 20 of the population; the average existence enjoyed may be greater than when 1 in 40 died for the reason given in the former case. As for example, in the year when 1 in 20 died, it may have happened that the deaths were among the older lives, and that, taking one with another, the average age of all who died might be 50; while in the other case the mortality might have been amongst the infant population, when the average age might have been 20. If the proportion of 1 in 40, or 1 in 20, were to obtain each year continuously, taking one life with another, the average duration to a population just born, of whom 1 in 40 died, and whose place should be supplied each year by a new birth, would be about 20 years to each life, or one-half; and of a similar population, of whom 1 out of 20 died annually, the average duration of life to each would be about 10 years, or one-half the period at the expiration of which all the lives would have expired.

When these examples are considered, it will be understood that the average age of death may remain stationary, or may go on increasing, whilst the proportions of death remain the same, or vary. The actual mortality of most districts is found to be coincident chiefly with its physical condition, and is most accurately measured by the years of vitality which have been enjoyed, _i. e._, by the average age of death. The numbers of deaths increase or diminish considerably, and frequently create erroneous impressions, whilst the average ages of death are found to maintain a comparatively steady course, always nearest to the actual condition of the population, and give the most sure indications.

The chief test of the pressure of the causes of mortality is then the duration of life in years: and whatever age may be taken as the standard of the natural age or the average age of the individual in any community may be taken to correct the returns of the proportions of death in that same community. For example, in the returns of the St. George’s, Hanover Square district, it appears that in 1839, the proportions of deaths was 1 to 50 of the population; but the average number of years which 1325 individuals who died during that year had lived, was only 31 years, or 8 years below the average period of life in Carlisle. There was then in that district during that year a total loss of 10,600 years of life, which at 39 years may be considered as equal to an excess of deaths of 272 persons, and in a healthy state the proportions of deaths should have been 1 in 63 instead of 1 in 50 of the population. The excess in numbers of deaths in the metropolis has been measured by this standard, the total number of years of life, would in a healthy community have been divided in portions of not less than 39 years to every individual who died.

The effect of migration or of emigration, in disturbing the results of returns of the average ages of death in particular localities appears to be commonly much exaggerated.

As formerly, when navy surgeons, overlooking the filth of their ships, which has since been removed, and not perceiving the effects of the atmospheric impurities arising from the overcrowding, which have since been diminished by better ventilation, directed their whole attention to supposed distant causes and mysterious agencies, and were wont to ascribe the whole of the fever which ravaged a fleet to infection from some casual hand, who was found to have been received on board from some equally filthy and ill kept prison where the “gaol fever” had been prevalent; so now, in some of our towns, we find much ingenuity exercised to avoid the immediate force of the facts presented by such returns, by a search for collateral and incidental defects in them. Thus in Liverpool the whole of its vast excess of mortality has been charged upon the poorer passengers who pass through the port. In other towns also, all the excess of deaths from epidemic or infectious disease is charged upon the vagrant population. In New York and some of the American cities, where inquiries have been stimulated by the example of the sanitary inquiry in this country, a common observation made on the proved excess of mortality is, that a large proportion of “foreigners” frequent the city. An inquiry into the cases themselves would generally show that if, instead of the proportion of the immigrant population being: a small per-centage, it formed a very large proportion of the population included: still the proportion per cent. of sickness and mortality, from consumption and other diseases, amongst the resident population, is the greatest; and that even in lodging-houses the disease roost frequently appears first in the occupants who are stationary, and last in the new comers. In some badly conditioned districts, where there is a very severe mortality observable on children, a less proportionate amount of mortality prevails amongst the adults who are migrant, than on other adults resident in somewhat less depressed districts, but who are more stationary. Of all classes (unless it be the higher classes who resort to watering-places) it is not the sickly and the weakly who travel for subsistence as handicraftsmen, or for subsistence in commerce, but the healthy and robust. In so far as the general results of mortuary registration of any district are disturbed by a population who are migrant (who are not only above the average strength, but who generally come with the additional advantage of health by travel in the open air and in a purer atmosphere), they are usually disturbed by unduly raising and giving the locality an appearance of an average of health, and the fatally deceptive chances of longevity that do not belong to it Whilst therefore the localities gain by the average health and strength of the migrant population, other districts have the credit of a share of the excess of disease and mortality which really belong to unhealthy localities. In other words, the population migrating through such districts carry away more disease and mortality from the crowded districts than they take into them. If there had been a mortuary registration at Walcheren, or any pestilential stations productive of an excessive mortality in the army, the registries probably would not have given the localities credit for more than half the mortality which belonged to them. The real sickness and mortality of the more depressed town districts are often made to appear lower than they are by the number of cases treated in distant workhouses, hospitals, and dispensaries, for which no credit is given to the locality where the cause of death occurred.

It would doubtless proportionately enhance the value of such returns as those in question, if the rule were fully carried out that “the population enumerated must always be precisely that which produces the deaths registered;” the grand desideratum being, as expressed by Mr. Milne, for insurance purposes, “to determine the number of annual deaths at each age which takes place among the living at the same age;”[43] but the facts cited of the greater proportion of adults, and of health in those adults who are immigrant, will answer the objections to the superior applicability to local or class insurance tables, deduced from actual local observation of the local rate of mortality prevalent amongst that population, whether migrant or stationary, and without reference to the actual ages of the living (though that were desirable), compared with deductions from any general insurance table, _i. e._ the experience of a distant and wholly unconnected population. Deductions from tables, however correctly made from the experience of other towns, must he, and are proved, by such experience as that hereafter cited, to be merely “guess-work.” Vide ‘General Sanitary Report,’ pp. 218, 219. For myself, I make it a general rule of precaution neither to receive nor adduce statistical returns as evidence without previous inquiry, wherever it is possible, into the particulars on which they are founded, or with which they are connected. I adduce them less as principal evidence, proving anything by themselves, than as proximate measures, or as indications of the extent of the operation of causes substantiated by distinct investigations. The general conclusions which the facts that have come to my knowledge tend to establish on the subject of the experience of mortality are, that there is no general law of mortality yet established that is applicable to all countries or to all classes, or to all times, as commonly assumed; that every place, and class, and period has rather its own circumstances and its own law, varying with those circumstances; that the actual experience of any class or place, or period, even with the disturbance of any ordinary amount of migration, or immigration, or any ordinary influx of young lives from births, is a safer guide than any experience deduced from the experience of another people living at another time and place, or any assumed general law.

For many public purposes, I have submitted it as a desideratum that population returns should give not merely the _numbers_ of each class, or of those engaged in each distinct occupation, which only enables us to resort to the fallacious standard of the proportionate numbers of deaths, to judge of the mortality incidental to the class, but the total ages of each class, which would serve as an index of alterations in the sanitary condition of that same class. Such returns of the total ages should, for the public use, be reduced to their simplest proportions. In the form in which they are usually given, only in intervals of quinquennial or decennial periods, they are extremely meagre, and involve so much inaccuracy in any attempts that might be made to use them, for the purpose of comparing district with district, as to be generally useless. Whereas, if the ages of any class, or of the general population living in any district, and the ages of those of them who die, were reduced to the simplest proportions—that is, if the total years of age, whether of the living or dying, were divided by the total number of individuals from which the returns were made, the public would be enabled to make comparisons between district and district, and to judge of the relative degrees of pressure, in each, of the causes of mortality. As the simple proportions of average ages of the living have not yet, that I am aware of, been used, or even calculated in any instance, I beg leave to exemplify them.

Mr. Griffith Davies is theoretically of opinion, on a formula of De Moivre, that in general the average age of death in any community is necessarily higher than the average age of those living in the same community: and that in a stationary population the average age of death will, under ordinary circumstances, be in the ratio of 3 to 2 higher than the average age of the living. I have had the average age of the living population, on which the experience embodied in the Carlisle Insurance table was founded, calculated: and if that may be considered to have been a stationary population, the proportion of the ages of the living to those of the dying was practically as about 3 to 4: for whilst the average age of the dying was 38–3/10, the average age of the living population was 32–9/10. The average age of the dying in Hereford, in which the increase of population had been very slight, was 39. But the average age of the living population, so far as it can be made out from quinquennial returns, was 28 years and 5 months. On this and all returns of the ages of the living, in the mode in which the returns have been collected, allowance must be made for understatements of ages by some of the adult members of the community. On the whole, the proportion of the ages of the living to the dying appears to be in an ordinarily healthy and stationary community, as about 3 to 4.

As yet the observations have not been on a sufficiently wide basis; but it appears that wherever there is any divergence between the average ages of the living and the average ages of the dying, the divergence beyond their natural proportions may be taken as indicating the proportionate operation of some disturbing cause upon either line, as by some extraordinary increase of births, or by immigration or emigration, on the average ages of the living, and on the line of the average ages of the dead.

So far as I have been enabled to observe or collect from the extremely imperfect data at present available to the public service, the line of the average ages of the living is comparatively steady; the disturbances by migration and immigration which often compensate each other, for the same place and period, being much the same at different periods, and seldom affect the results materially, whilst the variations in the pressure of the causes of death from year to year, are usually considerable, and warrant the assumption that in general the disturbances occasioning the divergence described, are from the operations of causes of death upon that line. Wherever the pressure of the causes of death has yet been observed to be very great, there the line of mortality, or the average age of death, is below, what may be called, the line of vitality constituted by the average age of the living; and wherever there is on the whole any diminution of those causes of death, as by better ventilation, or by widening streets, opening new thoroughfares, better supplies of water, sewering and cleansing, and improvements in the general habits of the population, there the line of mortality, the infantile mortality especially, diminishes, the average age of each adult class, up to sexagenarians or octogenarians, increases, and the average age of death ascends above the average age of the living. The means of observation are as yet too few to elicit more than indications for the guidance of sustained investigation, to determine whether the divergence of the two lines may be reduced to any rule.

In Liverpool,—where the investigations into the condition of the resident cellar population certainly show an increase of the causes of death,—overcrowding, defective ventilation, bad supplies of water, and increased filth,—the average age of death is, for the whole town, 17 or 18 years only, whilst the average age of the living population, so far as it can be made out from the mode in which the census is prepared, is 24 years. As far as can be ascertained by reference to previous registries of one large parish, where the ages of the dead were formerly entered, the average duration of life in that town has gradually fallen. The average ages of all who were buried in St. Nicholas parish between the years 1784 and 1809 was 25.

In Manchester, the average age of the living is 25 years, but the average age of the dying is only 18. In Leeds, the average age of the living is also 25 years, but the average age of the dying is only 21.

Years. Months.

The average age of all who _live_ in the town parishes
of Middlesex, so far as they can be made out from the 26 2
only available materials,—the returns in quinquennial
periods,—is only

But the average age of all who _die_, judging from one 27 0
year’s return, appears to be about

If, however, we allow for the understatement of ages, the two lines for the whole metropolis would be nearly coincident. On the experience of Carlisle and Hereford, the average age of death should be twelve years higher.

Arranging the several districts of the metropolis, in the order of the average age of deaths, we find the average age of the living decrease with the average age of the dying; and the proportion of births to the population increase with the decrease of the average age of death. The excess in the proportionate number of births beyond the proportions in such a county as Hereford (1 to 44), where the average age of death is much higher, and proportionate number of deaths to the population, afford important indicia.

──────────────────┬────────┬─────────┬───────┬───────┬─────────────────
│Average │ Average │Propor-│Propor-│
Districts in which│ Age of │ Age of │ tions │ tions │ Excess above
average Age of │Death in│ all who │ of │ of │ County of
Death of the whole│the Dis-│ live in │Births │Deaths │ Hereford in the
Population is │ trict, │the Dis- │to the │to the │ Number of:
│ of all │ trict. │ Popu- │ Popu- │
│Classes.│ │lation.│lation.│
──────────────────┼────────┼─────────┼───────┼───────┼─────────┬───────
│ │ │ │ │ Deaths │
│ │ │ │ │ and │Births.
│ │ │ │ │Funerals.│
──────────────────┼────────┼─────────┼───────┼───────┼─────────┼───────
│ Years. │yrs. mon.│ │ │ │
Highest │ │ │ │ │ │
(Comprising 2 │ │ │ │ │ │
Districts.) │ 35│ 27 11│1 to 41│1 to 42│ 966│ 145
Population │ │ │ │ │ │
120,678. │ │ │ │ │ │
1. Intermediate (6│ │ │ │ │ │
Districts.) │ 30│ 27 5│1 to 39│1 to 46│ 1,836│ 639
Population │ │ │ │ │ │
311,022. │ │ │ │ │ │
2. Intermediate │ │ │ │ │ │
(12 Districts.) │ 27│ 26 11│1 to 33│1 to 40│ 7,457│ 5,718
Population │ │ │ │ │ │
774,937. │ │ │ │ │ │
Lowest (12 │ │ │ │ │ │
Districts.) │ 23│ 26 5│1 to 30│1 to 41│ 5,705│ 6,822
Population │ │ │ │ │ │
663,290. │ │ │ │ │ │
──────────────────┴────────┴─────────┴───────┴───────┴─────────┴───────

It will be observed that in the least healthy districts where the pressure of the causes of mortality is the most extensive, the average age of death falls nearly three years and a half _below_ the average age of the living, whilst in the higher districts the line of mortality rises towards the natural position, or nearly four years above it. But it must still be borne in mind, in the inspection of the returns from the highest district, that the average is made up of districts which are probably retrograding, connected with others which are advancing,—of districts such as are developed by Mr. Worrell, registrar, in his note on one of the returns from St. Pancras, comprising streets, the connected courts and alleys from which are widely as separate and distinct in condition,—and, if I may use such an illustration, as little appropriate for any average that could be represented by numerals—as were the conditions of Lazarus and Dives.

Even the lowest proportion of deaths to the population presented in the district returns, that of Hackney, where it is only 1 to 56. appears to be a proportion in excess by nearly one-eighth, _i. e._ the deaths from epidemics, as well as the excess of more than one-third in the deaths of children under 10 years of age. The return, from the healthiest district in the returns, of the average age of deaths gives an average of 7 years’ loss of life for the whole population; whilst for the _adults_ of the middle classes it gives 10 years, and for the _adults_ of the working classes 7 years’ premature loss of life. Even in the county of Hereford where there is a proportion of deaths of 1 to 64 of the population, and the standard of the Carlisle table of insurance where an average age of 39 years of death is attained, it will be observed that even this average includes a large proportion (542), or nearly 1-third in the number of deaths under 10 years of age, and 123 or 1–14th deaths from epidemics, besides others involving deaths from preventible causes. Only 329, or 1 in 5 of the deaths in this very healthy county, were deaths registered as from old age. By the removal of this excess of deaths, the excess of births which replace them would even in these districts be of course still further diminished.

It may be conjectured that if there were the means of distinguishing accurately the various classes of the living amongst whom these deaths fall, the irregularity of the proportionate number of deaths which probably arise amongst the labouring classes would be accounted for. The present returns of the number of births do not distinguish the classes amongst whom the births occur. Taking the districts in the order of the average age in which deaths occur to the labouring classes, and comparing the proportions of the deaths and funerals with the proportions which occur in Hereford, the excess of deaths and funerals was in 1839 as follows:—

┌──────────────────────────────┬───────────┬──────────────────────────┐ │ │Average Age│Excess in Number of Deaths│ │Districts in which average Age│of Death of│ of Artisans, &c., in the │ │of Death of Artisans, &c., is │ Artisans, │District above the Deaths │ │ │&c. in the │of Agricultural Labourers │ │ │Districts. │ in Herefordshire. │ ├──────────────────────────────┼───────────┼──────────────────────────┤ │1. Highest number of the class│ 38│ 483│ │ (comprising 2 Districts.) │ │ │ │2. Intermediate (1) number of │ 27│ 548│ │ the class (5 Districts.) │ │ │ │3. Intermediate (2) number of │ 23│ 1,773│ │ the class (10 Districts.) │ │ │ │4. Lowest number of the class │ 20│ 4,121│ │ (15 Districts.) │ │ │ └──────────────────────────────┴───────────┴──────────────────────────┘

The totals of the subjoined district returns for the metropolis are as follows:—

┌──────────────┬──────────────────────────┬────────┬────────┬─────────┐ │ │ │ Number │Average │ Average │ │ │ │ of │ age at │ age at │ │ │ Number of deaths of each │ deaths │death of│death of │ │ │ class. │ from │all who │the whole│ │ │ │Epidemic│ die │ class, │ │ │ │disease.│ above │including│ │ │ │ │ 21. │children.│ ├──────────────┼────────┬────────┬────────┼────────┼────────┼─────────┤ │ │ │Children│ │ │ │ │ │ │Adults. │under 10│ Total. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ years. │ │ │ │ │ ├──────────────┼────────┼────────┼────────┼────────┼────────┼─────────┤ │Gentlemen │ 1724│ 529│ 2253│ 210│ 60│ 44│ │Tradesmen │ 3970│ 3703│ 7682│ 1428│ 51│ 25│ │Labourers │ 12045│ 13885│ 25930│ 5469│ 49│ 22│ │Paupers │ 3062│ 593│ 3655│ 557│ 60│ 49│ │Undescribed │ 2996│ 2761│ 5757│ 1051│ 56│ 28│ ├──────────────┼────────┼────────┼────────┼────────┼────────┼─────────┤ │ Totals │ 23806│ 21471│ 45277│ 8715│ 53│ 27│ └──────────────┴────────┴────────┴────────┴────────┴────────┴─────────┘

The following totals of the mortuary registration of the several registrars’ districts in Hereford for the same year are given for comparison:—

┌──────────────┬──────────────────────────┬────────┬────────┬─────────┐ │ │ │ Number │Average │ Average │ │ │ │ of │ age at │ age at │ │ │ Number of deaths of each │ deaths │death of│death of │ │ │ class. │ from │all who │the whole│ │ │ │Epidemic│ die │ class, │ │ │ │disease.│ above │including│ │ │ │ │ 21. │children.│ ├──────────────┼────────┬────────┬────────┼────────┼────────┼─────────┤ │ │ │Children│ │ │ │ │ │ │Adults. │under 10│ Total. │ │ │ │ │ │ │ years. │ │ │ │ │ ├──────────────┼────────┼────────┼────────┼────────┼────────┼─────────┤ │Gentlemen │ 49│ 19│ 68│ 2│ 65│ 45│ │Farmers, &c. │ 205│ 45│ 250│ 14│ 60│ 47│ │Labourers │ 833│ 324│ 1157│ 87│ 58│ 39│ │Paupers │ 26│ 11│ 37│ 1│ 71│ 51│ │Undescribed │ 124│ 143│ 267│ 19│ 68│ 30│ ├──────────────┼────────┼────────┼────────┼────────┼────────┼─────────┤ │ Totals │ 1237│ 512│ 1779│ 123│ 60│ 39│ └──────────────┴────────┴────────┴────────┴────────┴────────┴─────────┘

The total number of births registered in the several districts in the metropolis, where it is yet far from complete, in the year 1839, was 51,232, or 1 to 37 of the population. The total number of births registered in Hereford during the same year was 2579, or 1 to 44.

The positions advanced in the Sanitary Report of the greater proportion of births in the districts where the deaths are the most frequent, is confirmed in respect to the metropolis by a more recent return with which I have been obligingly favoured by the Registrar-General, in which he shows,—

┌──────────────────────────────┬─────────────────────────┬────────────┐ │ │ │ Ratio of │ │ │ Proportion per cent. │ deaths to │ │ │ │ births. │ ├──────────────────────────────┼────────────┬────────────┼────────────┤ │ │ Deaths. │ Births. │ │ ├──────────────────────────────┼────────────┼────────────┼────────────┤ │“Unhealthiest sub-districts │ 3·14│ 3·66│ 1 to 1·17│ │Less unhealthy sub-districts │ 2·68│ 3·18│ 1 to 1·19│ │Average sub-districts │ 2·43│ 3·35│ 1 to 1·38│ │Healthier sub-districts │ 2·17│ 2·64│ 1 to 1·22│ │Healthiest sub-districts” │ 1·87│ 2·47│ 1 to 1·32│ ├──────────────────────────────┴────────────┴────────────┴────────────┤ │“The mortality is 68 per cent. higher in the unhealthy than in the │ │healthy sub-districts: the proportion of births is 48 per cent. │ │greater in the unhealthy than in the healthy sub-districts.” │ └─────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────┘

If the deaths in the metropolis during 1839 had been in the same proportion to the population as they were in Hereford, there would have been 8866 funerals less during that year.

If the proportion of births in the metropolis during that year had been the same as in Hereford, there would have been 16,053 births the less.

Or to vary the illustration:—

If the deaths in Hereford had been in the same proportion as the deaths in the metropolis, the community in that county would during that year have had 977 funerals the more.

If the births in Hereford had been in the same proportion as in the metropolis, there would during that year have been 540 births the more.

If the deaths in the whole of England and Wales had been in the proportions attained in some districts, and attainable in all, namely, 1 in 50, there would during the year have been 31,866 funerals less, and more than ten times that amount of cases of sickness the less.

If the proportions of births in the whole kingdom had been the same as those occurring in average healthy districts—such as that of the town district of Hackney, for example, of 1 to 42—there would have been 139,958 births the less to make up for the excess of deaths.

* * * * *

The importance of the subject will justify the reference to other examples.

The commissioners for taking the census of Ireland have bestowed considerable labour to effect various improvements, with a view to determine more accurately the actual condition and progress of the population. They have attempted, amongst other improvements, to ascertain not merely the total number of houses, but the number of each description of houses in each district. From the want of any system of mortuary or birth registration in Ireland their attempts to ascertain correctly the proportions of deaths and births to the population appear to have been to some degree frustrated; and the return of the average age of death must be received as an approximation, giving higher than the real chances of life in that country. From the mode which the commissioners adopted of collecting the ages of the living, by taking the actual age of each individual with precautions, it appears probable that their returns on this head are more trustworthy than those obtained in England.

The proportions of births to the population obtained by the Census Commissioners in Ireland are, I conceive, below the real amount; the proportions of deaths are confessedly so. The proportions of deaths and several other results may however serve for comparison between one province and another and between one county and another. I have taken the following results from several of their tables, or have had them calculated from their data. I submit them as indications of the momentous public truths that still lie open for investigation, of which truths the most important are the extent of the operation of the causes of mortality, which can only be correctly ascertained on the spot by inquiries for a mortuary registration, by responsible officers of superior qualifications and intelligence as officers of health. The fractional numbers are omitted in the returns from the provinces.

┌─────────────────────────────┬───────────────────────────────────────┐ │ │ LEINSTER. │ ├─────────────────────────────┼───────────────────┬───────────────────┤ │ │ RURAL. │ TOWN. │ ├─────────────────────────────┼─────────┬─────────┼─────────┬─────────┤ │ │ Houses. │Families.│ Houses. │Families.│ ├─────────────────────────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┤ │First Class houses │ 2│ 2│ 24│ 33│ ├─────────────────────────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┤ │“Good farm-houses, or in │ │ │ │ │ │ towns houses in a small │ 21│ 21│ 37│ 39│ │ street, having from 5 to 9 │ │ │ │ │ │ rooms and windows” │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │“A better description of │ │ │ │ │ │ cottage, still built of │ 47│ 46│ 23│ 16│ │ mud, but varying from 2 to │ │ │ │ │ │ 4 rooms and windows” │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │“All mud cabins having only │ 28│ 28│ 14│ 10│ │ one room” │ │ │ │ │ ├─────────────────────────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┤ │ │ Males. │Females. │ Males. │Females. │ ├─────────────────────────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┤ │Average age at death │ 32·│ 31·5│ 25·│ 25·4│ │ │ / │ / │ │ │ 32 │ 25 │ │ │ / │ │ │ 30 │ │Average term of premature │ │ │ │ loss of life as compared │ │ │ │ with the experience of │ 7 │ 14 │ │ Carlisle or the county of │ │ │ │ Hereford │ │ │ │ │ / │ │ │ 9 │ │ │ │ │Annual proportion of deaths │ 1 in 32·3 │ │ to the mean population │ │ │ │ │ │Average age of all who lived │ 25 │ │ in 1841 │ │ │ │ │ │Proportion of widows to every│ │ │ │ 100 of the population above│ 13 │ 17 │ │ 17 years old │ │ │ │ │ —— │ —— │ │ │ │ │Rate of increase on │ 3·35 │ │ population since 1831 │ │ │ │ │ │Excess of number of births to│ │ │ every 10,000 of the │ │ │ population above the │ 73 │ │ proportion of births in │ │ │ Hereford │ │ │ │ │ │Positive numbers of births in│ │ │ excess above the proportion│ 14,515 │ │ of births in Hereford │ │ └─────────────────────────────┴───────────────────────────────────────┘ ┌─────────────────────────────┬───────────────────────────────────────┐ │ │ MUNSTER. │ ├─────────────────────────────┼───────────────────┬───────────────────┤ │ │ RURAL. │ TOWN. │ ├─────────────────────────────┼─────────┬─────────┼─────────┬─────────┤ │ │ Houses. │Families.│ Houses. │Families.│ ├─────────────────────────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┤ │First Class houses │ 1│ 1│ 12│ 14│ ├─────────────────────────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┤ │“Good farm-houses, or in │ │ │ │ │ │ towns houses in a small │ 13│ 13│ 44│ 49│ │ street, having from 5 to 9 │ │ │ │ │ │ rooms and windows” │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │“A better description of │ │ │ │ │ │ cottage, still built of │ 34│ 34│ 30│ 25│ │ mud, but varying from 2 to │ │ │ │ │ │ 4 rooms and windows” │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │“All mud cabins having only │ 50│ 49│ 13│ 10│ │ one room” │ │ │ │ │ ├─────────────────────────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┤ │ │ Males. │Females. │ Males. │Females. │ ├─────────────────────────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┤ │Average age at death │ 28·2│ 27·│ 23·6│ 23·7│ │ │ / │ / │ │ │ 28 │ 24 │ │ │ / │ │ │ 27 │ │Average term of premature │ │ │ │ loss of life as compared │ │ │ │ with the experience of │ 11 │ 15 │ │ Carlisle or the county of │ │ │ │ Hereford │ │ │ │ │ / │ │ │ 12 │ │ │ │ │Annual proportion of deaths │ 1 in 29·5 │ │ to the mean population │ │ │ │ │ │Average age of all who lived │ 24 │ │ in 1841 │ │ │ │ │ │Proportion of widows to every│ │ │ │ 100 of the population above│ 12 │ 16 │ │ 17 years old │ │ │ │ │ —— │ —— │ │ │ │ │Rate of increase on │ 7·59 │ │ population since 1831 │ │ │ │ │ │Excess of number of births to│ │ │ every 10,000 of the │ │ │ population above the │ 95 │ │ proportion of births in │ │ │ Hereford │ │ │ │ │ │Positive numbers of births in│ │ │ excess above the proportion│ 22,875 │ │ of births in Hereford │ │ └─────────────────────────────┴───────────────────────────────────────┘ ┌─────────────────────────────┬───────────────────────────────────────┐ │ │ ULSTER. │ ├─────────────────────────────┼───────────────────┬───────────────────┤ │ │ RURAL. │ TOWN. │ ├─────────────────────────────┼─────────┬─────────┼─────────┬─────────┤ │ │ Houses. │Families.│ Houses. │Families.│ ├─────────────────────────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┤ │First Class houses │ 1│ 1│ 10│ 9│ ├─────────────────────────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┤ │“Good farm-houses, or in │ │ │ │ │ │ towns houses in a small │ 21│ 21│ 56│ 60│ │ street, having from 5 to 9 │ │ │ │ │ │ rooms and windows” │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │“A better description of │ │ │ │ │ │ cottage, still built of │ 45│ 45│ 23│ 21│ │ mud, but varying from 2 to │ │ │ │ │ │ 4 rooms and windows” │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │“All mud cabins having only │ 32│ 32│ 9│ 8│ │ one room” │ │ │ │ │ ├─────────────────────────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┤ │ │ Males. │Females. │ Males. │Females. │ ├─────────────────────────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┤ │Average age at death │ 31·8│ 32·│ 23·8│ 23·6│ │ │ / │ / │ │ │ 32 │ 24 │ │ │ / │ │ │ 31 │ │Average term of premature │ │ │ │ loss of life as compared │ │ │ │ with the experience of │ 7 │ 15 │ │ Carlisle or the county of │ │ │ │ Hereford │ │ │ │ │ / │ │ │ 8 │ │ │ │ │Annual proportion of deaths │ 1 in 31·1 │ │ to the mean population │ │ │ │ │ │Average age of all who lived │ 24 │ │ in 1841 │ │ │ │ │ │Proportion of widows to every│ │ │ │ 100 of the population above│ 12 │ 15 │ │ 17 years old │ │ │ │ │ —— │ —— │ │ │ │ │Rate of increase on │ 4·36 │ │ population since 1831 │ │ │ │ │ │Excess of number of births to│ │ │ every 10,000 of the │ │ │ population above the │ 84 │ │ proportion of births in │ │ │ Hereford │ │ │ │ │ │Positive numbers of births in│ │ │ excess above the proportion│ 20,003 │ │ of births in Hereford │ │ └─────────────────────────────┴───────────────────────────────────────┘ ┌─────────────────────────────┬───────────────────────────────────────┐ │ │ CONNAUGHT. │ ├─────────────────────────────┼───────────────────┬───────────────────┤ │ │ RURAL. │ TOWN. │ ├─────────────────────────────┼─────────┬─────────┼─────────┬─────────┤ │ │ Houses. │Families.│ Houses. │Families.│ ├─────────────────────────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┤ │First Class houses │ ·5│ ·6│ 7│ 10│ ├─────────────────────────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┤ │“Good farm-houses, or in │ │ │ │ │ │ towns houses in a small │ 8│ 8│ 30│ 33│ │ street, having from 5 to 9 │ │ │ │ │ │ rooms and windows” │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │“A better description of │ │ │ │ │ │ cottage, still built of │ 39│ 39│ 36│ 33│ │ mud, but varying from 2 to │ │ │ │ │ │ 4 rooms and windows” │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │“All mud cabins having only │ 51│ 50│ 25│ 22│ │ one room” │ │ │ │ │ ├─────────────────────────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┤ │ │ Males. │Females. │ Males. │Females. │ ├─────────────────────────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┤ │Average age at death │ 26·1│ 24·3│ 22·6│ 22·4│ │ │ / │ / │ │ │ 25 │ 23 │ │ │ / │ │ │ 24 │ │Average term of premature │ │ │ │ loss of life as compared │ │ │ │ with the experience of │ 14 │ 16 │ │ Carlisle or the county of │ │ │ │ Hereford │ │ │ │ │ / │ │ │ 15 │ │ │ │ │Annual proportion of deaths │ 1 in 28 │ │ to the mean population │ │ │ │ │ │Average age of all who lived │ 23 │ │ in 1841 │ │ │ │ │ │Proportion of widows to every│ │ │ │ 100 of the population above│ 12 │ 17 │ │ 17 years old │ │ │ │ │ —— │ —— │ │ │ │ │Rate of increase on │ 5·58 │ │ population since 1831 │ │ │ │ │ │Excess of number of births to│ │ │ every 10,000 of the │ │ │ population above the │ 117 │ │ proportion of births in │ │ │ Hereford │ │ │ │ │ │Positive numbers of births in│ │ │ excess above the proportion│ 16,624 │ │ of births in Hereford │ │ └─────────────────────────────┴───────────────────────────────────────┘ ┌─────────────────────────────┬───────────────────────────────────────┐ │ │ IRELAND. │ ├─────────────────────────────┼───────────────────┬───────────────────┤ │ │ RURAL. │ TOWN. │ ├─────────────────────────────┼─────────┬─────────┼─────────┬─────────┤ │ │ Houses. │Families.│ Houses. │Families.│ ├─────────────────────────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┤ │First Class houses │ 1·3│ 1·4│ 15·9│ 21·│ ├─────────────────────────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┤ │“Good farm-houses, or in │ │ │ │ │ │ towns houses in a small │ 16·8│ 17·2│ 43·6│ 46·6│ │ street, having from 5 to 9 │ │ │ │ │ │ rooms and windows” │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │“A better description of │ │ │ │ │ │ cottage, still built of │ 41·9│ 41·7│ 26·8│ 21·7│ │ mud, but varying from 2 to │ │ │ │ │ │ 4 rooms and windows” │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │ │“All mud cabins having only │ 40·│ 39·7│ 13·7│ 10·7│ │ one room” │ │ │ │ │ ├─────────────────────────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┤ │ │ Males. │Females. │ Males. │Females. │ ├─────────────────────────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┤ │Average age at death │ 29·6│ 28·9│ 24·1│ 24·3│ │ │ / │ / │ │ │ 29 │ 24 │ │ │ / │ │ │ 28 │ │Average term of premature │ │ │ │ loss of life as compared │ │ │ │ with the experience of │ 10 │ 15 │ │ Carlisle or the county of │ │ │ │ Hereford │ │ │ │ │ / │ │ │ 11 │ │ │ │ │Annual proportion of deaths │ 1 in 30·3 │ │ to the mean population │ │ │ │ │ │Average age of all who lived │ 24 │ │ in 1841 │ │ │ │ │ │Proportion of widows to every│ │ │ │ 100 of the population above│ 12 │ 16 │ │ 17 years old │ │ │ │ │ —— │ —— │ │ │ │ │Rate of increase on │ 5·25 │ │ population since 1831 │ │ │ │ │ │Excess of number of births to│ │ │ every 10,000 of the │ │ │ population above the │ 90 │ │ proportion of births in │ │ │ Hereford │ │ │ │ │ │Positive numbers of births in│ │ │ excess above the proportion│ 74,016 │ │ of births in Hereford │ │ └─────────────────────────────┴───────────────────────────────────────┘

The proportion of widowhood (which would generally be attended by its proportion of orphanage) to the short duration of life in the worst conditioned districts is submitted as confirmatory of the principles expounded in the General Sanitary report on the condition of the labouring population in Great Britain. Vide p. 188, _et seq._

Conformity of the rate of increase of population with the ages of the living and dying was not to be expected in the returns where the emigration from the different provinces is (probably) variable; but in the two provinces where the household condition appears to be the worst, and the proportion of mud cabins the greatest, there we find the mortality is the highest.

Where the pressure of the causes of mortality is the greatest; where the average age of death is the lowest, and the duration of life is the shortest, there the increase of population is the greatest. The proportion of children is great because life is short and the generation transient; the middle aged and the aged are swept away in large proportions; and marriages are disproportionately early. But, says a political economist in an essay in support of Mr. Malthus’s original view, “The effect of wars, plagues, and epidemic disorders, those terrible correctives, as they have been justly termed by Dr. Short, of the redundance of mankind on the principle of population, sets its operation in the most striking point of view. These scourges tend to place an old country in the situation of a colony. They lessen the number of inhabitants, without, in most cases, lessening the capital that is to feed and maintain them.” What I apprehend the actual facts when examined, place in a striking point of view, is the danger of adopting conclusions deeply affecting the interests of communities, on hypothetical reasonings, and without a careful investigation whether the facts sustain them: the facts themselves, when examined, show that (be it as it may with war) epidemic disorders do _not_ lessen the number of inhabitants; and that they _do_ in all cases that have been examined lessen the capital that is to feed and maintain them. They lessen the proportion of productive hands and increase the proportion of the helpless and dependent hands. They place every community, new or old, in respect to its productive economy in the position which the farmer will understand by the like effects of epidemics upon his cattle, when in order to raise one horse two colts must be reared, and the natural period of work of the one reared is, by disease and premature death, reduced by one-third or one-half. The exposition already given, _vide_ General Report p. 176, _et seq._ p. 200, of the dreadful misery and disease-sustaining fallacy which erects pestilence into a good, is further illustrated by the effects of the proportions of the dependent populations of Ireland. Thus in England, the population above 15 and under 50 years of age in every ten thousand is 5025, and this five thousand have 3600 children below 15 years of age dependent upon them. In Ireland, the population above 15 years of age is 4900—in other words, there are 125 less of adults in every ten thousand; and this smaller proportion of living adults, with eight or ten years’ span less of life or working ability, have 4050, or four hundred and fifty more children dependent upon them. In England there are 1,365 persons in every ten thousand, or 13½ per cent. above 50 years old to exercise the influence of their age and experience upon the community. In Ireland there are only 10 per cent., or 1050 in every ten thousand of the population above 50 years of age.

It appears from a report which the Census Commissioners give on the sanitary condition of Dublin, that the mortality in the different localities of that city varies with their physical condition in the lower districts, and coincides with the description already cited in the general report, from the report of Dr. Speer, the physician to the Dublin Fever Hospital (_vide_ General Sanitary Report, p. 96). The like consequences follow to the lower Irish population settled in the English towns with the like habits, which permit them to accumulate refuse round their dwellings, and live in an atmosphere compounded of the miasma of a pigsty and a privy, and the smoke of a chimney in a crowded room. The Census Commissioners of Ireland have endeavoured to obtain returns of the chief causes of the mortality; and it appears from the report upon them, that hitherto, notwithstanding all that has been said and written, that fever has returned nearly decennially in periods, irrespective of any general distress in that country, and has extended its ravages to classes who were exposed to the miasma, but who suffered no distress. “Cases of starvation,” it is stated, “have been registered from returns at almost every age, 79 of them took place in the rural district, or 1 death in 11,539 of the general mortality of the open country, and minor towns and villages: 18 in the civic, or 1 in 13,009 of the deaths in towns of or above 2000 people; and 20 occurred in hospitals; the patients having been admitted when suffering from want of food, or in such a destitute condition as subsequently produced death from exhaustion. Including the deaths in hospitals with those in the civic districts, to which they properly belong, it appears that the deaths from want and destitution in the larger towns have been 1 in 7240 to the total mortality of these places. During the first 5-year period, these deaths were on an average but 6 per annum, and in the last 5-year period (that ending June, 1841) they had increased to the yearly average of 18.”

The dependency of the duration of life upon the physical condition of the population, and the connexion of several classes of moral and economical facts, with the proportionate mortality, may be further exemplified. Taking the four counties in Ireland in which the proportions of mud hovels are the greatest; and the four counties in which the proportions of such tenements are the least;[44] I have added the average ages of death as additional proofs and exemplifications of the conclusions stated in pp. 128 and 129, and other parts of the General Report.

──────────────────────────────┬───────────────────────────────────────
│ The four Counties where the average
│ proportion of mud hovels, as
│ habitations, is the lowest.
──────────────────────────────┼───────────────────────────────────────
│ Down. Wexford. Kilkenny. Monaghan.
Proportion per cent. of │
families occupying │
habitations which are mud │ 24·7 29·4 30·9 31·5
cabins having only one │
room[45] │
│ \--------------\/--------------/
│ 29
──────────────────────────────┼───────────────────────────────────────
Proportion of deaths from │
epidemic disease to every │ 36 28·5 36·8 40·4
10,000 of the population │
│ \--------------\/--------------/
│ 35·5
──────────────────────────────┼───────────────────────────────────────
Average age of all who have │
died during the 10 years │ 33·6 34·10 33·2 31·4
ended 6th June, 1841 │
│ \--------------\/--------------/
│ 33·4
──────────────────────────────┼───────────────────────────────────────
Average age of all the living │ 24·10 25·10 24·8 24·2
in 1841 │
│ \--------------\/--------------/
│ 24·11
──────────────────────────────┼───────────────────────────────────────
Proportions of births to the │1 in 33·4 1 in 34·3 1 in 33·6 1 in 32·5
population │
│ \--------------\/--------------/
│ 1 in 33·4
──────────────────────────────┼───────────────────────────────────────
Increase per cent. of the │ 2·7 10·6 7·9 2·5
population since 1831 │
│ \--------------\/--------------/
│ 5·0
──────────────────────────────┼───────────────────────────────────────
Per cent. of the population, │ 39·7 35·6 37·8 40·9
15 years and under │
│ \--------------\/--------------/
│ 38·8
──────────────────────────────┼───────────────────────────────────────
Above 50 years │ 12·0 12·5 10·9 10·9
│ \--------------\/--------------/
│ 11·6
──────────────────────────────┼───────────────────────────────────────
Proportion per cent. of male │
and female population, 17 │
years and upwards. │
──────────────────────────────┼───────────────────────────────────────
Unmarried │ 42 44½ 45½ 41
│ \--------------\/--------------/
│ 43¼
──────────────────────────────┼───────────────────────────────────────
Married │ 49 47 45½ 49½
│ \--------------\/--------------/
│ 47¾
──────────────────────────────┼───────────────────────────────────────
Per cent. of the population 5 │
years old and upwards, who │ 27·5 41·3 51·2 51·3
can neither read nor write │
│ \--------------\/--------------/
│ 42·8
──────────────────────────────┼───────────────────────────────────────
Proportions of crimes[46] of │
violence or passion to each │
10,000 of the population on │
an average of 8 years to │
1812:— │
──────────────────────────────┼───────────────────────────────────────
Murders and Proportions│ ·11 ·20 ·44 ·55
Manslaughters │
Positive │ 31 35 83 88
Numbers. │
Proportions │ \--------------\/--------------/
│ ·32
──────────────────────────────┼───────────────────────────────────────
Rapes and │
Assaults, with Proportions│ ·06 ·15 ·22 ·35
intent to commit │
Positive │ 15 22 31 58
Numbers. │
Proportions │ \--------------\/--------------/
│ ·17
──────────────────────────────┴───────────────────────────────────────

──────────────────────────────┬───────────────────────────────────────
│ The four Counties where the average
│ proportion of mud hovels, as
│ habitations, is the highest.
──────────────────────────────┼───────────────────────────────────────
│ Kerry. Mayo. Clare. Cork.
Proportion per cent. of │
families occupying │
habitations which are mud │ 66·7 62·8 56·8 56·7
cabins having only one │
room[45] │
│ \--------------\/--------------/
│ 61
──────────────────────────────┼───────────────────────────────────────
Proportion of deaths from │
epidemic disease to every │ 50·2 51·0 53·1 43·3
10,000 of the population │
│ \--------------\/--------------/
│ 47·8
──────────────────────────────┼───────────────────────────────────────
Average age of all who have │
died during the 10 years │ 24·10 23·2 24·5 28·8
ended 6th June, 1841 │
│ \--------------\/--------------/
│ 26·8
──────────────────────────────┼───────────────────────────────────────
Average age of all the living │ 23·1 23·0 22·9 24·0
in 1841 │
│ \--------------\/--------------/
│ 23·5
──────────────────────────────┼───────────────────────────────────────
Proportions of births to the │1 in 28·8 1 in 28· 1 in 28·7 1 in 31·8
population │
│ \--------------\/--------------/
│ 1 in 29·9
──────────────────────────────┼───────────────────────────────────────
Increase per cent. of the │ 11·7 6·2 10·9 9·9
population since 1831 │
│ \--------------\/--------------/
│ 8·7
──────────────────────────────┼───────────────────────────────────────
Per cent. of the population, │ 42·4 43·1 42·4 39·7
15 years and under │
│ \--------------\/--------------/
│ 41·9
──────────────────────────────┼───────────────────────────────────────
Above 50 years │ 9·4 9·4 8·7 10·4
│ \--------------\/--------------/
│ 9·5
──────────────────────────────┼───────────────────────────────────────
Proportion per cent. of male │
and female population, 17 │
years and upwards. │
──────────────────────────────┼───────────────────────────────────────
Unmarried │ 37 36 40½ 42
│ \--------------\/--------------/
│ 39
──────────────────────────────┼───────────────────────────────────────
Married │ 55 56 51½ 50
│ \--------------\/--------------/
│ 53
──────────────────────────────┼───────────────────────────────────────
Per cent. of the population 5 │
years old and upwards, who │ 70·4 79·0 63·1 65·6
can neither read nor write │
│ \--------------\/--------------/
│ 69·7
──────────────────────────────┼───────────────────────────────────────
Proportions of crimes[46] of │
violence or passion to each │
10,000 of the population on │
an average of 8 years to │
1812:— │
──────────────────────────────┼───────────────────────────────────────
Murders and Proportions│ ·71 ·87 1·08 ·52
Manslaughters │
Positive │ 166 271 249 316
Numbers. │
Proportions │ \--------------\/--------------/
│ ·72
──────────────────────────────┼───────────────────────────────────────
Rapes and │
Assaults, with Proportions│ ·71 ·51 ·46 ·28
intent to commit │
Positive │ 166 159 108 178
Numbers. │
Proportions │ \--------------\/--------------/
│ ·44
──────────────────────────────┴───────────────────────────────────────